Appendix

The Soul And Its Vestures

Our theory of this world, and of the solar system of which it forms a part, is that there is much more in them than there is usually supposed to be—that they extend much farther than is commonly thought, not outward, but inward.

We hold that there is an unseen world, that it is around us here and now, and not far away from us, and that it remains unseen only because most of us have not yet developed the senses by which it can be perceived; that for those who have developed these senses that world is not unseen and not unknown, but is entirely within reach, and can be explored and investigated as may be desired, precisely as any country here on earth might be.

We find that besides the matter which we can see about us, and besides the matter which we do not see, but of whose presence science assures us—the various gases and the ether, for example—there exists many other still finer kinds of matter, which can only be seen by means of these finer senses. We put this before you as a hypothesis, for your consideration and examination; but it is only fair to tell you that to us it is much more than a hypothesis—that to many of us it is a certainty based upon our own individual observations. We have worked for many years at these studies; I myself have been a student for five and forty years, and when a man has devoted practically his whole time during all those years to a single subject, he begins to know something about it, and to have its broad principles clearly and definitely in his mind.

It is therefore quite true that with regard to many of these subjects, which will seem to you new and strange, I am in a somewhat different position, for to me all these things are matters of course—in many cases matters of daily experience. Many of us know from our own experiments that these things are true, but we do not ask you to believe this because we do, but only to accept our testimony as you would any other evidence, and take it into account. We are not seeking for converts, we are not tying to induce people to believe what we say; we are simply putting before them a system of study, in the hope that they may be sufficiently interested to take it up and follow it further for themselves. There is an immense literature upon these subjects so that anyone who will may readily study further.

As far as we are concerned, then, we know that these finer kinds of matter exist, and that there are whole worlds composed of them, which we call the higher planes of nature. Remember that I am still of the same matter which you all know; we recognize only one matter, though it may be in different conditions. Just as you may have hydrogen in its normal gaseous condition, or (under sufficient pressure and with the proper temperature) you may have it liquefied, or even solidified—so we find that its condition may be changed in the opposite direction, and we may have it in a finer state, which we called the etheric.

In that etheric condition we might have gold or silver, lithium or platinum or any of the so-called “elements”. We do not apply the name of elements to these substances, because we find that they are all capable of further subdivision. As long ago as 1887 Sir William Crookes propounded the theory that all known elements might very well be variations of one—that they might all be reduced to an original substance to which he gave the name of protyle. The truth, as seen by our students, goes a little farther than that; for instead of finding at the back of everything a homogeneous substance, we find that there is such a thing as physical atom. A chemist speaks of atoms of any of his elements, but really these may all be further subdivided, broken up into the true atoms, of which they are simply different arrangements.

These ultimate physical atoms are found to be all alike (except that some of them are positive, and some negative), and they pervade all space of which we know anything. They are inconceivable minute, and far beyond the reach of the most powerful microscope ever made, or ever likely to be made; but they can nevertheless be observed by means of the developed senses of man. The inner science approaches its problems from a different point of view; instead of developing and improving its instruments, as outer science has been so wonderfully successful in doing, it goes to work to develop the observer. It develops within the man other and finer faculties, by means of which he is able to perceive these exceedingly minute objects, and thus it penetrates farther into the heart of nature than any instrument can ever do. Do not imagine that there is anything supernatural or uncanny about these higher faculties; they are simply straight-forward developments of powers which man already possesses and will come to everyone in due course, though some people have taken special trouble to develop them now in advance of the rest.

There are, then, ultimate physical atoms which can be observed and examined. It would be out of place to describe them here in detail, but I should perhaps say that an atom is roughly heart-shaped, and looks as though it were constructed of wires like a birdcage. (Diagram 20). Each wire is a spiral, made in turn of still finer spirals, which we call spirillae. The atom is in reality a vortex, formed by the flow of the divine life-force. If that force were for a moment withdrawn, the atom would instantly disappear—would cease to be, just as a little column of dust and leaves whirling at a street-corner falls to pieces when the wind drops.

When we reach that ultimate physical atom, is there any further possibility, can our observation take us any further still? We find that it can. The word atom is derived from the Greek meaning that which cannot be cut or further subdivided. But that term is not strictly applicable, for these physical atoms can be divided; but when they are, we have a type of matter which is totally unaffected by and heat or cold that we can produce. It seems probable that solar temperatures would affect even this finely subdivided matter, but certainly ours do not. But this higher matter is exceedingly interesting, and we find that there is a whole world composed of it existing all around us. interpenetrating all matter that we know—lying all about us, in the atmosphere, within our own bodies, and within all solid objects. Just as science tells us that ether interpenetrates all objects, ourselves included, so does this still finer matter.

There are several stages of this subdivision of matter, by which we mean simply divisions of matter according to its degree of density. All the matter which you know we should describe as that of the physical plane, including a condition even finer than gas. Beyond that we come to another class—the same matter still, remember, only more finely subdivided, and we call this astral matter. This is a name which was given to it by the mediaeval alchemists, who were well aware of its existence.

Modern science has no name for it yet, but it probably soon will have, for its researches are drawing nearer and nearer to this finer matter every day; indeed, it seems probable that what it calls an electron is what we call an astral atom. We have carried on this process of subdivision and refining to another stage, and have found another condition of matter higher still; and to that we have given the name of mental matter, because what is called the mental body of men is composed of this type of matter. That sounds [like] a startling statement, no doubt, but nevertheless it is a true one, based on definite experiment on scientific lines.

Still more of these subdivisions rise one above another, and beginning from the bottom, we call them physical, astral, mental, intuitional, spiritual, monadic and divine. Do not be deceived by the use of the word “above”. Do not think for a moment of our enquiry as passing away from earth. to rise higher in this investigation means simply to withdraw more and more into the self, so as to be able to sense finer and finer stages of matter; but all these stages are existing about us here and now and all the time, simply interpenetrating one another, just as the air or gas in aerated water interpenetrates the liquid. Just so, in and amongst all physical particles exist astral particles, and amongst the astral particles exist the mental in turn.

If we carry on these subdivisions to the very end, we come to a countless number of inconceivable tiny dots or beads, all spherical, of the simplest possible construction and absolutely identical. Though they are the basis of all matter, they are not themselves matter; they are not blocks, but bubbles blown in the ether of space—blown by that creative Breath of God of which ancient Scriptures tell us.[1] So the universe exists while God holds it with His breath; if He drew in that breath there would be no universe. In view of this marvellous distribution of Himself in space, the familiar concept of the Sacrifice of the Logos takes on a new depth and splendour; this is His dying in matter, this His perpetual Sacrifice. Is it not His very glory that He can thus sacrifice Himself to the uttermost by permeating and making Himself one with that portion of the aether which He chooses as the field of His universe?

Now, having in view these ideas with regard to the nature of matter, let us turn to the constitution of man. the ordinary man thinks of himself as consisting of a body certainly, and possibly a soul, though he usually speaks of himself as possessing this latter, and being responsible for saving it, as though it were some kind of pet animal which he kept, or something attached to him and floating above him, like a captive balloon. We should say that he is entirely wrong in supposing that he has a soul, but he would be quite right if he said that he is a soul. The ordinary statement is a comical inversion of the fact; for the truth is that man is a soul and has a body, which is simply one of the vestments that he puts on. You all know that this is so, if you think of it. I am quite aware of the theory that nothing exists but matter, and that all the thoughts and aspirations of man are nothing but chemical reactions among the constituent particles of the grey matter of his brain; but as there are thousands of facts for which this theory does not account, I think we may dismiss it in favour of something more rational.

There are hundreds of cases on record in which a man has gone away from his physical body in trance or under the influence of anaesthetics, or even in ordinary sleep; and it is found that under such circumstances, when he is far away from his physical brain, with its grey matter and its chemical action, he can still think and observe and remember just as when he has his physical vehicle in use. It is therefore evident that man is not the body, since he can exist apart from it; the body is only an instrument which he uses for his own purposes.

Some may ask whether we have any definite proof outside our own observation as to this crucial fact that man can live1 without his body. Certainly there is a great deal of proof for anyone who cares to take the trouble to look for it. Read the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, and you will see what it has done in this line—how a committee of scientific men has again and again been satisfied with regard to the appearance of a man's “double” at a distance from where his physical body was at the time. It is quite definitely known to all investigators that a man may under certain circumstances travel away from his body, see what is taking place at a distance, and then return and reanimate his body, and tell where he has been and what he has seen and done.

In some of my own books you will find a number of instances collected; and in Sir William F. Barrett's On the Threshold of the Unseen, or his Psychical Research, or in Myer's profoundly interesting book in two volumes, Human Personality and its Survival of bodily Death, you will find many examples, with the fullest possible authentication. The ordinary materialistic theory does not explain these occurrences at all, and because it cannot explain them, it usually denies them, and declares that they do not happen—which disingenuous, for a little examination proves conclusively that they happen constantly.

Since these things occur, how do they occur? Their explanation is intimately connected with our subject, for the first step towards a comprehension of them is to realize that man is a soul, and has not one body only, but several. This is not a new idea. We read of a soul and a spirit in St. Paul's writings, and because men in these days are so ignorant of psychology as to confuse these terms, they imagine that St. Paul was equally ignorant, and was employing them as synonyms. He uses two entirely distinct Greek words—πνευμα, spirit and ψυχη, soul—and he attaches precisely the same meaning to each of them as any other educated man of his period did. If you want to grasp the exact shades of that meaning, you must not trust to the blank ignorance of the modern religious enthusiast, but study the contemporaneous philosophy.

I am of course aware that much controversy surrounds the precise signification to be attached to these two Greek words. I have taken them here in what seems to me the most probable sense, considering their relation to the rest of St. Paul's argument; but some students would place them at a higher level altogether, and say that the word ψυχικος, which is here translated “natural,” ought to be rendered by the English word derived from it, “psychic”. If that theory be accepted, the “natural body” is the astro-mental, and that other higher vehicle which is called “spiritual” must be the causal body, which is the permanent vehicle of the soul, lasting through all the long succession of physical incarnations. But even if that be so, it still remains true that St. Paul bears witness to the fact that man possesses more than one body, and that when one of them dies, be lives again in another.

Our theory of man and his origin is that he is essentially a spirit, a spark of the Divine Fire. That spark is individualized, marked off as it were, from the great ocean of the Godhead by something which we may call a soul. That which separates him we usually call the causal body, but we leave that aside for the present, and deal only with his lower vehicles, for that causal body is unchanging, except that it gradually evolves, whereas the mental, astral and physical are taken afresh for each incarnation.

Why should he take upon himself these various bodies?—it may be asked. Because this is the method of evolution appointed for him—that he shall gain experience through learning to respond to impacts from without. He takes on these lower bodies in order that he may be able to receive and respond to vibrations of stronger, coarser type than any which could be found in his own higher world. For some students this whole subject is most easily comprehended by considering it along this line of vibrations.

Think of it thus: Every impression which reaches us from without, no matter what it is, comes to us as a vibration. We see by means of the waves in the ether, we hear by means of waves in the air. What then is conveyed to us by the vibrations of the finer type of matter of which I have been speaking, and how are we able to receive them? the answer is simple, but far-reaching. By their means we are able to perceive the higher part of our world, which is usually hidden from us; and we may learn to appreciate them by means of the finer matter which exists in us—through the senses of these finer bodies, in fact.

Here I am entering into a domain as yet untouched by ordinary science, but I am saying nothing which is in any way contradictory to that science. You may put this aside as unproven, but you cannot say that it is unreasonable or unscientific. Science recognizes vast numbers of possible vibrations and knows that out of all these our physical senses can respond to only a few. Yet through these few we have learnt all that we know so far; and it is obvious that if we can learn to use more of these waves from without we shall receive more information. Now that is precisely what a clairvoyant does—he receives information about a world which we ordinarily do not see; and he receives it by means of vibrations which impinge upon his higher vehicles. So a clairvoyant is a man who has learnt to focus his consciousness in his higher bodies at will. That at least is what a thoroughly trained clairvoyant could do, but there are many who only passively clairvoyant, and cannot control the faculties which they possess.

Science also quite recognizes how partial our vision is, and how a slight alteration in our power to respond to these waves from without would change for us the whole appearance of the world. Once Sir William Crookes gave a good example of that. He explained that if, instead of seeing by rays of light, we saw by electrical rays, the whole of our surroundings would seem totally different. One point was that in that case the air about us would seem perfectly opaque, because air is not a conductor of electrical vibrations, while a wire or an iron bar would be a whole through which we could see, because these substances are good conductors.

Many people suppose that our faculties are limited—that they have their definite bounds, beyond which none of us can go. But this is not so. Now and then we find an abnormal person who has the X-ray sight by nature and is able to see far more than others; but we can observe variations for ourselves without going as far as that. If we take a spectroscope, which is an arrangement of a series of prisms, its spectrum, instead of being an inch or an inch and a half long, will extend several feet, although it will be much fainter. If we throw that upon a huge sheet of white paper, and induce a number of our friends to mark on that sheet of paper exactly how far they can see light, how far the red extends at one end, or how far the violet extends at the other we shall be surprised to find that some of our friends can see farther at one end, and some farther at the other end. We may come upon someone who can see a great deal farther than most people at both ends of the spectrum; and if so, we have someone who is on the way to becoming clairvoyant.

It might be supposed that it is only a question of keenness of sight, but it is not that in the least; it is a question of sight which is able to respond to different series of vibrations; and of two people the keeness of whose sight is absolutely equal, we may find that one can exercise it only toward the violet end, and the other toward the red end. The whole phenomenon of colour-blindness hinges on this capacity; but when we find a person who can see a great deal farther at both ends of this spectrum, we have someone who is partially clairvoyant, who can respond to more vibrations; and that is the secret of seeing so much more. There may be and there are many entities, many objects about us which do not reflect rays of light that we can see, but do reflect these other rays of rates of vibration which we do not see; consequently some of such things can be photographed, though our eyes cannot see them.

The experiments of the late Dr. Baraduc, of Paris, seem to show conclusively the possibility of photographing these invisible vibrations. When last I saw him, he showed me a large series of photographs in which he had succeeded in reproducing some of the effects of emotion and of thought. He has one of a child mourning over the death of a pet bird, where a curious sort of network of lines produced by the emotion surrounds both the bird and the child. Another of two children, taken the moment after they were suddenly startled, shows a speckled and palpitating cloud. Anger at an insult is manifested by a number of little thought-forms thrown off in the shape of flecks or incomplete globules.

All these experiments show us how much is visible to the eye of the camera which is invisible to ordinary human vision; and it is therefore obvious that if the human vision can be made as sensitive as the plates used in photography we shall see many things to which now we are blind. It is within the power of man not only to equal the highest sensitiveness attainable by chemicals, but greatly to transcend it; and by this means a vast amount of information about this unseen world may be gained.

To put the same idea from another point of view, the senses, by means of which we obtain all our information about external objects, are as yet imperfectly developed; therefore the information obtained is partial. What we see in the world about us is by no means all that there is to see, and a man who will take the trouble to cultivate his senses will find that, in proportion as he succeeds, life will become fuller and richer for him. For the lover of nature, of art, of music, a vast field of incredibly intensified and exalted pleasure lies close at hand, if he will fit himself to enter upon it. Above all, for the lover of his fellow-man there is the possibility of far more intimate comprehension and therefore far wider usefulness.

No wonder, therefore, that when we learn to see by an entirely new set of waves in astral matter, we find quite a different world opening to our gaze. One change is that we find ourselves then able to see astral matter in other men—to look at their astral bodies instead of their physical vehicles only. I have written a book, Man Visible and Invisible, upon this subject of the higher bodies of man, which is illustrated with coloured pictures drawn for me by one who is himself able to see these bodies; from that you will be able to form some idea as to how these things appear to the sight of the clairvoyant, and I think you will find it a most interesting study.

The astral body is especially the vehicle of passion, emotion and desire in man, so that when a sudden wave of some great emotion sweeps over a man, it shows itself by exceedingly violent vibrations of the astral matter. Suppose that with astral sight you were watching a man, and that man should unfortunately lose his temper. Instead of seeing the physical expression of annoyance, you would see a remarkable change in his astral body. The whole vehicle would be pulsating with a violent vibration, and since colour is only a certain rate of vibration, this sudden change would involve also a change in the colour of the astral body as well. When we speak of the surging of passions, we are nearer the truth than we think, for that is exactly the appearance produced. As the man cools down, his astral body will resume its usual colour and appearance, yet a slight permanent trace is perceptible to the trained eye. The same thing is true of all other emotions, good or bad. If a man feels a great rush of devotion emotion, or of intense affection, each of these will at once manifest itself by its appropriate change in the astral body, and each will leave its slight permanent trace upon the man's character.

When we come to deal with that other vehicle of still finer matter which we call the mental body, we find that that also vibrates, but in response to quite a different set of impressions. No emotion under any circumstances ought to affect it in the least, for this is not the home of the passions or emotions, but of thought. It is not a new idea to speak of vibration in connection with thought. All experiments in telepathy and thought-transference depend upon this fact that every thought creates a vibration, and that this can be conveyed along a line of mental particles, and will excite a similar vibration in the mental body of another man. There may still be those who do not believe in telepathy, for it is hard to find the limits of human obstinacy: But this is a matter upon which anyone may so easily convince himself that unbelief simply means indifference to the question. A man may remain ignorant if he will, but when he has wilfully chosen that position he has no right to deny the knowledge of those who have taken more trouble than he has.

Here, then, are two of the bodies of man—the astral body, which is the vehicle of his sensations, passions and emotions; and the mental body, which is the medium of his thought. But each of these has its possibilities of development, for at each level there are various types of matter. A man may have a comparatively gross astral body, which answers readily to low, undesirable vibrations, and buy carefully working at it, and learning to control it, he may gradually change its composition considerably, until it becomes capable of responding to waves of emotions of a much better type.

In the mental body he may have a fine type of mental matter, or a somewhat grosser mental matter; and upon that it will depend whether good and high thoughts come naturally and easily to him or the reverse. But this also is in his own power, for he can alter it if he will. And it is not only during his earth-life that this will make a great difference to him and to his emotions, but also in the life after death. When the man puts off his physical body he still retains these others, the astral and the mental, and upon their condition depends much of his happiness in the new world (which yet is part of the old one) in which he finds himself. Remember that these are matters not of mere belief but of experiment for many of us.

It will readily be understood that a man when manifesting himself through one of these vehicles will present to the world surrounding him an appearance modified by that vehicle. A man living in his astral body is living in his emotions; he can express himself only through them, he can be influenced by others only through their emotional vehicles. That same man living in his mental body may well seen quite a different person, for in that state he expresses himself through his thoughts; and equal differences will be found to exist when he is using other vestures. So distinct are these various presentations of the man that, though they are in reality only aspects of him, they are often described as though they were separate parts of factors in his constitution, and from that point of view are called his “principles” (Diagram 21). When the student meets with this word in our literature, he must understand that they are the constituent parts or aspects of the man, each showing a good deal of life and activity of its own, yet fundamentally all one.

Here, then, is our theory, the result of our experiments, and in explaining it to you I am giving you the benefit of more than forty years of work and study—slow, toilsome, difficult work of many kinds, involving no little self-control and self-training. I think that all my fellow students who have borne the burden and heat of those years will agree that it has been hard and slow work, but still a steady progress and development in many ways: and out of it all has emerged for all of us a certainty that nothing can shake, that makes us know where we stand.

 

Diagram 21—The Human Principles. The consciousness of man is a unit, not a multiplicity; but as it manifests itself in the different bodies or vehicles, it presents different aspects. These aspects or presentations of consciousness are termed “principles”. An analogy may be traced in the aspects of an electrical current as it flows round a bar of soft iron, through a coil of German-silver wire, and within a tube filled with mercury vapour, giving rise to magnetism, heat and light respectively. The current is the same, but its manifestations vary according to the nature of the matter through which it is acting. It somewhat the same way the bodies of man split up the current of consciousness into various manifestations. A principle is not a body, but the expression of consciousness in a body.

The Monad (1) (termed by St. Paul the Spirit) is a Spark of Divine Fire—the divine source of the human consciousness. Of it nothing is known directly by our investigators, as in order to reach and examine the conditions at the level of the monadic world, a man must have attained the stage of development called Adeptship. When the consciousness of the Monad manifests in the spiritual world, it is always a triplicity (2, 3, and 4), the Triple Spirit of philosophy. Principle 2 does not descend below that level, and is, therefore, called the Spirit of man. The other two principles do manifest in the next lower world, the intuitional, giving rise to the dual intuitive nature. Principle 5 does not manifest below that level, and is, therefore, called the Intuition. Principle 6 pours itself down into the next world, the mental, and in its higher levels manifests as the Intelligence in man. These three (2, 5, and 7) taken together, constitute the ego in man, the reincarnating centre of consciousness which persists through the whole series of human lives.

The ego probably corresponds to what St. Paul calls the soul. In the lower worlds the ego is reflected in principle 9, 10 and 11 which collectively constitute the transitory personality of one life. The link between the ego and the personality is marked 8, and in Indian philosophy is called the antahkarana. If we think of the ego as the true man, then the personality is the hand which he dips down into matter in order to work through it, and the antahkarana is the arm linking that hand to his body. In the lower mental world the Intelligence of man is dimly reflected as the mind—that part of our consciousness which busies itself in gathering, arranging and classifying concrete images and facts.

⁶⁰⁷In the astral world, through the astral body, our emotions, passions, desires and appetites are able to express themselves; while in the physical body resides an instinctive consciousness (which, however, in most people, is largely subconscious). That which we call our waking consciousness is the partial reflection in the brain of the activities of the astral and mental bodies.

In our illustration is diagrammatically represented the fact that our physical body is made up of seven grades or densities of physical matter; this is likewise true of the other bodies, though it is not shown in the diagram; each is composed of the matter of the subplanes of the world in which it finds itself, and the stage of the man's development is shown by the proportion of the finer and the grosser types. Take the astral body, for example. The rough and unevolved person has a great preponderance of matter belonging to the lower astral subplanes (which can vibrate only in response to coarse and selfish emotions) and comparatively little of the finer types of matter belonging to the higher subdivisions of the same plane.

As the man progresses, there will be fewer of these crude vibrations, and so the coarse particles which live by them will gradually atrophy and drop out, their places being taken by the finer particles of the higher astral subplanes which respond only to the gentler undulations of unselfish emotion. Precisely the same thing happens in the mental body; low thoughts mean coarse mental matter, and it is replaced by finer mental matter as the man's thought becomes higher in type. The relationships shown in the diagram are not spatial, but show only the connections between the various expressions of that complex thing which we call the human consciousness.

Out of it has come a firm and definite adhesion to this glorious knowledge, which has done so much for us, which we find to account for so many things which would otherwise be insoluble mysteries, which stands by us in times of trouble and difficulty, and explains so clearly and reasonably why the trouble and the difficulty come, and what they are going to do for us. It is the most intensely practical theory all the way through, and assuredly we wish for nothing that is not practical and reasonable. Humbly following in the footsteps of the mighty Indian teacher of 2,500 years ago, the Lord Buddha, we would say to you what he said to the people of the village of Kalama when they came and asked him what, amid all the varied doctrines of the world, they ought to believe:

“Do not believe in a thing said merely because it is said; nor in traditions because they have been handed down from antiquity; nor in rumours, as such; nor in writings by sages, merely because sages wrote them; nor in fancies that you may suspect to have been inspired in you by an Angel (that is, in presumed spiritual inspiration); nor in inferences drawn from some haphazard assumption you may have made; nor because of what seems an analogical necessity; nor on the mere authority of your own teaches or masters. But we are to believe when the writing, doctrine or saying is corroborated by our own reason and consciousness. For this I have taught you, not to believe merely because you have heard; but when you believe of your own consciousness, when to act accordingly and abundantly.” (Dalama Sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya).

That is a fine attitude for the teacher of any religion to take, and that is precisely the attitude we wish to take. We are not seeking for converts in the ordinary sense of that word. We are in no way under the delusion from which so many estimable orthodox people suffer, that unless you believe as we do, you will have an unpleasant and sulphureous time hereafter. We know perfectly well that every one of you will attain the final goal of humanity, whether you now believe what we tell you or whether you do not. The progress of every man is absolutely certain; but he may make his road easy or he may make it difficult.

If he goes on in ignorance, and seeks selfish ends in that ignorance, he is likely to find it hard and painful. If he learns the truth about life and death, about God and man, and the relation between them, he will understand how to travel so as to make the path easy for himself, and also (which is much more important) so as to be able to lend a helping hand to his fellow-travellers who know less than he. That is what you may do, and what we hope you will do. We have found this philosophy useful to us; we have found that it helps us in difficulties, that it makes life easier to bear, and death easier to face, and so we wish to share our gospel with you. We ask no blind faith from you; we simply put this philosophy before you and ask you to study it, and we believe that if you do so you will find what we have found—rest and peace and help, and the power to be of use in the world.

 

A.   M.   D.   G.